TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page…….……………………………………………………………………………….i
Certification …….……………………………………………………………………………ii
Dedication…….………………………………………………………………………………iii
Acknowledgement…….……………………………………………………………………. iv
Table of content…….…………………………………………………………………………v
Abstract…….…………………………………………………………………………………vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study …….…………………………………………………………. 1
1.2 Statement of problem ……….……………………………………………………… 4
1.3 Research Questions …….………………………………………………………………. 5
1.4 Objective of the study …….……………………………………………………………. 6
1.5 Scope and limitation …….…………………………………………………………… 6
1.5.1 Scope …….……………………………………………………………………………..6
1.5.2 Limitation…….…………………………………………………………………………7
1.6 Organization of study…….………………………………………………………………7
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1.7 Justification of study…….…………………………………………………………….7
1.8 Research methodology…….…………………………………………………………..9
1.9 Definition of terms…….……………………………………………………………….9
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction…….………………………………………………………………………….12
2.1 Conceptual Clarification………..………………………………………………………….14
2.1.1 Foreign Policy…….………………………………………………………………………14
2.1.2 National Interest…….…………………………………………………………………….16
2.1.3 Diplomacy…….……………………………………………………………………………22
2.2 Bilateral relations between Nigeria and USA…….……………………………………….22
2.3 Theoretical Framework …….………………………………………………………………24
2.3.1 World system theory…….…………………………………………………………………24
2.3.2 Dependency theory…….…………………………………………………………………..25
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction…….……………………………………………………………………….33
3.2 Research Design…….……………………………………………………………………33
3.3 Method of Data Collection…….………………………………………………………. 33
3.3.1 Secondary Data…….……………………………………………………………………34
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction…….……………………………………………………………………… 35
4.2 Analysis of Nigeria-US relations since 1999 …….……………………………………. 35
4.3 Patterns of Nigeria-US relations…….……………………………………………………38
4.3.1 Trade and Investment…….……………………………………………………………. 38
4.3.1.1 External debt and Financial Assistance…….……………………………………….. 39
4.3.1.2 Nigeria has also been involved in the African Growth and Opportunity Act…….. 42
4.3.2 Military and Security Co-operation…….……………………………………………. 43
4.4 Appraisal of Democratic Roles in the development of Nigeria-US relations…………..47
4.5 Evaluation of Global Terrorism on the Nigeria-USA relations……………………………52
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary…….…………………………………………………………………………..59
5.2 Conclusion…….…………………………………………………………………………59
5.3 Recommendation…….…………………………………………………………………..60
Bibliography
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ABSTRACT
Notwithstanding Nigeria’s claims of adhering to the non-alignment policy, her continued focus
on the West can hardly be removed under the carpet. From her independence in 1960, the
country’s policies have been in favour of the countries of the Western Hemisphere. In fact, the
notion among African scholars is that Nigeria’s non alignment policy is only in theory, but not in
practice. This study has chosen to consider Nigeria’s relations with the United States of America,
from 1999 to 2013. In all, the focus is on the U.S-Nigeria relations between these two periods.
The facts for this research are gathered from secondary sources. These include material from
textbooks, newspapers, magazines, journal articles and internet sources.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The Nigeria-United States relations are bilateral relations between Nigeria and the United States.
The United States established close relations with Nigeria in 1960 when she got her
independence from the British. Although the Nigeria-USA relationship has been strained due to
various military coups in the Second Republic from 1979-1983.The history of Nigeria‟s foreign
policy towards United States since 1960 has constantly been changing, though the principles
guiding her foreign relations remain the same. Strategic event are largely responsible for the
unstable external relationship between the two countries. Since Nigeria‟s foreign policy is deeply
rooted in Africa with emphasis on political and economic cooperation, peaceful dispute
resolution, and global nonalignment, Nigerian leaders also have their attention fixed on the
successful implementation of these principles which sometimes come in conflict with the US
foreign goals.
At independence Nigeria began to conduct foreign relations under the political leadership of her
prime minister, the late Alhaji (Sir) Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. His administration emphasized
Africa to be centre-piece of Nigeria‟s foreign policy. His own foreign relation was pro-Western
particular with Britain, Nigeria‟s erstwhile colonial master. With the bloody military coup of
January 15, 1966, the late Major-General J.T. Aguisi Ironsi came to power only to be killed in a
counter coup staged six months later. This development brought the retired General Yakubu
Gowon to power (Abegunrin, 2001: 12-20). Although General Yakubu Gowon‟s adopted a prowestern approach In Nigeria‟s foreign relations. He entered into agreements with Britain, United
12
States and other European Countries. A bloodless military coup lead to the hijacking of the
General Yakubu Gowon‟s government and this lead to the emergence of late General Murtala
Ramat Mohammed and the retired General (now Chief) Olusegun Obasanjo who was his second
in command and Chief of Staff Supreme Headquarters. This regime innovated new ideas and
dynamism In the country‟s foreign affairs. The regime prepared to counter the imperial moves of
the western powers especially the United States who had emerged as a major power broker in
Africa particularly in Angola (Robert, 1991: 57). This was also the era of the cold war where the
USA and the Soviet Union were competing for military supremacy and searching for satellite
countries who would support them in their bid to permanently polarize the world into Capitalist
and Communist Blocs under the US and Soviet Union respectively (Robert, 1991: 67). The
Muhammed\Obasanjo regime pursued confrontational diplomatic in its resolve to emancipate
African countries that were still under the tyranny of colonial masters. The government also had
conflict with the US in its bid to eradicate neo-colonialism, racism and apartheid on the African
continent particularly colonies in Southern Africa (Davies, 1978: 15).
With all these involvements in international politics, Nigeria became a regional power and centre
of influence, particularly in Africa, making her to adopt confrontational foreign policy posture
towards the US. This combined with a viable economy until the mid-1980s; Nigeria was a toast
of many states seeking either its influence or support on global issues or financial assistance
(Ate, 1987: 93). However, after the June 12, 1993, Nigerian presidential election was annulled,
and in light of human rights abuses and the failure to embark on a meaningful democratic
transition, the United States imposed numerous sanctions on Nigeria. These sanctions included
the imposition of Section 212 of the Immigration and Nationality Act to refuse entry into the
United States of senior government officials and others who formulated, implemented, or
13
benefited from policies impeding Nigeria‟s transition to democracy; suspension of all military
assistance; and a ban on the sale and repair of military goods and refinery services to Nigeria.
The U.S. Ambassador was recalled for consultations for four months after the execution of the
Ogoni Nine on November 10, 1995.
After a period of increasingly strained relations, the death of General Abacha in June 1998 and
his replacement by General Abubakar opened a new phase of improved bilateral relations. As the
transition to democracy progressed, the removal of visa restrictions, increased high-level visits of
U.S. officials, discussions of future assistance, and the granting of a Vital National Interest
Certification on counter-narcotics, effective in March 1999, paved the way for re-establishment
of closer ties between the United States and Nigeria, as a key partner in the region and the
continent (Adebajo and Mustapha, 2008: 80-120).
When the new democratically elected government in Nigeria took power in 1999, the United
States (US) pictured a bright future with a strategic country in the African sub-region. They
envisioned a strong partnership in political, economic and security realms. The growing
influence of Islam in northern Nigeria has also been a cause of concern to some policymakers in
Washington, particularly in light of America‟s war on terrorism. Diplomatic relations between
the two countries appeared to be threatened over the failed attempt by a Nigerian, Umar Farouk
Abdulmutallab to blow up a Northwest Airlines jet on Christmas Day (December 25, 2009)
which led to the inclusion of Nigeria on US terrorism watch list and subsequently, making the
Nigerian Senate to give the United States authorities a seven-day ultimatum to remove Nigeria
from their watch list (Tell Magazine, 2012). Despite challenges that marred Nigeria-US
relationship in 2010, the bilateral relationship continued to improve, and cooperation on many
14
important foreign policy goals, such as economic collaborations and regional peacekeeping has
been good.
The Nigerian government has lent strong diplomatic support to the U.S. Government counterterrorism efforts in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. The Government of Nigeria,
in its official statements, has both condemned the terrorist attacks as well as supported military
action against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. Between 2007 and 2012, Nigeria has played a leading
role in forging an anti-terrorism consensus among states in Sub-Saharan Africa (Tell Magazine,
2012). The United States seeks to help improve the economic stability, security, and well-being
of Nigerians by strengthening democratic institutions, improving transparency and
accountability, and professionalizing security forces. U.S. assistance also aims to reinforce local
and national systems; build institutional capacity in the provision of health and education
services; and support improvements in agricultural productivity, job expansion in the rural
sector, and increased supplies of clean energy. The United States is the largest foreign investor in
Nigeria, with U.S. foreign direct investment concentrated largely in the petroleum/mining and
wholesale trade sectors. U.S. exports to Nigeria include wheat, vehicles, machinery, oil, and
plastic. Nigeria is eligible for preferential trade benefits under the African Growth and
Opportunity Act (AGOA). U.S. imports from Nigeria include cocoa, rubber, returns, antiques
and food waste. The United States and Nigeria have signed a bilateral trade and investment
framework agreement.
It is the general aim of this thesis to explore the strategic importance of Nigeria as a crucial ally
of the US and the needed synergies between the two nations to ensure regional and international
stability.
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1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Over the years there have been various views from the public on the impact of the United State
of America in Nigeria. Is their motive just to exploit our natural resources and give us peanut,
this has been from various scholars and Nigerian citizens? The relationship between these two
countries has been up and down. Bilateral relations between Nigeria and the US from 1999 to
2012 had a dual character: acrimony and friendship. From 1999 to 2003, there was a friendly
relationship between the two countries, ; between 2003 and 2004 it degenerated into a full scale
diplomatic tussle where Nigeria regarded the action of the US government on Iraq invasion as
inappropriate; between 2005 and 2009, diplomatic relations was cordial with the increase in
economic activities; between 2009 and 2010, their relations was sour as a result of Nigeria‟s
inclusion on the terror list by the US government; and between 2011 and 2012, their relations
became stable and entered a new phase of strategic partnerships in the fight against
terrorism. The steps taken by these two countries to stabilize their relations during these periods
call for careful study.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the patterns of the Nigeria-USA relations since 1999?
2. How does domestic and global terrorism affect Nigeria-USA relations?
3. What role has democracy played in the Nigeria-USA relations since 1999?
4. Are there any impacts of the United States of America on Nigeria since 1999?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
16
The objective of this study is to assess the relationship between Nigeria and USA from 1999-
2013. Also since the USA is the largest trading partner and largest foreign investor In Nigeria,
this research is carried out to know whether Nigeria has benefitted in its relations with the USA.
Not only in the economy sector but in the cultural, military and other sectors of the country,
since USA is unarguably a big power state in the international system.. This is further aimed at
empirically evaluating whether the US initiative in the name of African Growth and Opportunity
Act (AGOA) as well as US African Command (AFRICOM) had any impact on the development
of Nigeria. Therefore, the specific objectives of the study are;
1. To discover the patterns of the Nigeria-USA relations since 1999.
2. To investigate the effect of global terrorism Nigeria-USA relations.
3. To examine the role which democracy has played in the Nigeria-USA relations since
1999.
4. To do an assessment of the Nigeria-USA relations since 1999.
1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
1.5.1 SCOPE
This study covers Nigeria‟s foreign relations with the United States of America from 1999 to 2013.
The study examines the bilateral relations between the two countries particularly the economic,
cultural and political and military relations from 1999 to 2012. Other areas which this study covers
include how the interplay of domestic factors shaped the relationship between Nigeria and the United
States of America.
1.5.2 LIMITATION
17
One of the limitations of study is the biasness and sentiments on the side of many publication,
writers, online and public opinion. Vital information required, important data where could have been
useful has been falsified by the media. In spite of all these limitations, efforts were made to ensure
the equality of the study through the use of sources such as online opinions, academic journals and
other relevant materials to ensure authencity and validity of the study.
1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This research work will be written in five chapters. Chapter one covers the introduction which also
covers the background of study, statement of problem, and the research objectives, amongst others.
Chapter two presents the literature review and theoretical framework on the study. Chapter three
presents the research methodology which outlines the research approach, sample selections, date
collection procedure and method of data analysis. Chapter four discusses the findings and results of
the data analysis while Chapter five present the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the
study.
1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
This study is very important for certain reasons. The study is vital in providing the justification
for the unrelenting efforts of the government to attract Foreign Direct Investments (FDI), through
its economic relations with the US. It is useful to scholars‟ especially diplomatic historians,
political scientists, economists and international relations experts in their research. Diplomats
like ambassadors, high commissioners and staffers of foreign ministries will benefit from the
work. The study is vital in exposing the top U.S foreign assistance priority in Nigeria which is
the “Investing in People”. As such this shows us that there need to be the prospects of the mutual
cooperation which is very decisive considering the fact that Nigeria is currently the economic
18
powerhouse of the African continent. Nigeria is also a capitalist economy and it is this inherent
similarity in both the Nigerian economy and the United States economy that proves the prospects
of this cooperation to be highly favorable.
The study is also vital in exposing how the United States is working with the Central Bank of
Nigeria, Finance Ministry, National Planning Commission, and others to improve the
environment for investment in agriculture through policy reform at the national and state level.
The study is also significant to the Nigerian citizens, the study uncovers the various United
States programs which help in the development of a policy climate in which micro, small and
medium enterprises have access to credit, encourage investment, stimulate job growth, and build
capacity in both the public and private sectors. Trade initiatives include capacity building in
customs regulation and operations, policy reform to encourage internal and external trade, taking
advantage of AGOA incentives for bilateral trade, and development of the private sector capacity
to meet international trade and export standards. This study will also be useful to our Nigerian
Military forces, the study exposes the peace and security measures carried out by the United
States in its relations with Nigeria, for example the Armed Forces Staff College, the only in
Africa and a major regional asset which has continued to provide equipment and training for
Nigerian peacekeeping forces while promoting effective civilian oversight of the military and its
adherence to human rights norms. The U.S. will focus on training, developmental and technical
aid, and law enforcement cooperation in border control. This study will also be useful to the
Nigerian government. In the area of governance and democracy this study reveals how the
Nigeria-USA relations have provided exceptional efforts to develop inclusive, transparent, and
effective institutions of democratic governance. The U.S. assistance also helps to rebuild basic
mechanisms of democratic governance to make elected officials accountable to constituents
19
through free and fair elections, strong government institutions, and well-organized, informed
citizens who demand performance. The United States advances rule of law in Nigeria by
strengthening the capacity and transparency of law enforcement agencies and judiciary. It
strengthens the civil society by promoting existing watchdog groups that have lobbied
successfully for more transparency, accountability, and pluralism in Nigeria’s fiscal, electoral,
conflict management, political, and human rights affairs.
1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A critical examination of the dramatic relations between Nigeria and USA will be analyzed using
findings from secondary sources like the Internet, academic articles and books that deal with
Nigeria-USA relations from 1999-2012.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Diplomacy: This is the work of maintaining good relations between the governments or
different countries. It is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations.
National Interest: This refers to a country‟s goals and ambition whether economic, military or
cultural.
Foreign Policy: This represents a set of principles or course of action that government of states
adopts that help to define their relationship with other parts of the world. Foreign policy therefore is
a product of internal environment and external circumstances. It is concerned with the conducts,
actions as well as behaviors of a state towards other states and the goals and objectives of state. The
environments within which foreign policy takes places are the domestic environment and the
international or external environment. The external environment entails all the contingencies of the
20
international system that affect and influence the goals and objectives of states.
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REFERENCES
Adetola, O. F. (2001). “An Assessment of a new Foreign Policy Initiative: Shuttle
Diplomacy,” Nigeria Forum, Vol.22, No. 9-10, Pp.24
Anglin, D.G. (1964). “Nigeria Economic Alignment and Political Nonalignment,”
In Journal of modern African Studies, Pp.247.
Bassey, A. (1985). “Nigeria and the United State: A Theoretical Framework for
the Analysis of Twenty Five Years of their Relationship,” in Olusanaya, G.O.,
Nigeria External Relation. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, Pp.235
Garba, J. (1978). “Nigeria‟s Foreign Policy and National Interest,” Speech
delivered by the Honourable Commissioner for External Affair at the
Opening of the Student Parliament, ABU, Zaria, in Oyediran, O. (ed.),
Survey of Nigeria Affairs, 1978. Lagos:NIIA/McMillan .
Olu, A. (2005). “Cost and Dividends of Foreign Policy.” In Adewale (ed.)
Presidential Advisory Council on International Relations (PAC): Foreign
Policy in Nigeria‟s Democratic transition. Abuja: PAC Publisher, Pp.28
Waris, O.A. (2007). “Nigeria and the Re-definition of National, Interest in the
Age of Globalization,” in Bola, A.A. (ed.) Nigeria‟s National Interests in a
Globalizing World: Further Reflections on Constructive and Beneficial
Concentrism. Ibadan: Bolytag International Publishers, Vol.1, Pp.59
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