TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page  –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        i

Approval    –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        ii

Dedication –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        iii

Acknowledgement       –        –        –        –        –        –        –        iv

Table of content –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        xi

Abstract     –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        x

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Background to the Study –        –        –        –        –        5
• Statement of the problem –        –        –        –        –        9
• Objective of the Study – –        –        –        –        –        11
• Significance of the study –        –        –        –        –        12
• Literature Review –        –        –        –        –        –        13

1,7     Hypotheses        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        22

A       Theoretical Framework –        –        –        –        –        23

B       Method of Data collection     –        –        –        –        27

C       Method of Data Analysis       –        –        –        –        28

• Definition of Terms and concepts –        –        –        –        30

References          –        –        –        –        –        –        32

CHAPTER TWO

2.0    HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF NIGERIA         –        –        34

• The Role of imperialism in the Emergency of Nigeria – 34
• Nigeria as a Federal Union –        –        –        –        –        37
• The Development of Political Parties –        –        –        39
• Political Parties Before Independence –        –        –        43
• Political Parties after Independence –        –        –        45

Reference –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        48

CHAPTER THREE

THE CRADLE OF ETHNICITY IN NIGERIA     –        –        –        50

• Colonialism and the Emergency of Contemporary

Ethnicity     –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        50

• Ethnic Consciousness Among Trial Groups in Nigeria – 53

References          –        –        –        –        –        –        –        57

CHAPTER FOUR

ETHNICITY AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN NIGERIA   –        58

• Ethnicity in its Operative Forms –        –        –        –        58
• Ethnicity in Politics –        –        –        –        –        –        59
• Ethnicity and Nigeria Economy –        –        –        –        60
• Ethnicity in Government and Administration –        –        62
• Ethnicity as a political factor for instability in Nigeria – 63

References          –        –        –        –        –        –        –        66

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS  –        68

• Findings/discussion –        –        –        –        –        –        68
• Recommendation –        –        –        –        –        –        74
• Summary and Conclusion –        –        –        –        –        78

References          –        –        –        –        –        –        –        79

Bibliography        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        80

ABSTRACT

Ethnicity and political instability no doubt have posed a serious threat to the socio-economic and political development in Nigerian.  Politics have been so ethnicized to the extent that everything is viewed from ethnic stand-point.  Every Nigerian will first see himself as a member of one ethnic group or the other before talking of being a Nigerian.  Also, political instability had a reoccurring feature in Nigeria politics and because of the grave damage they do to the polity they are given serious examination in this research.

Certain things like the origin of ethnicity in Nigerian politics and it’s impact on the Nigerian state have been investigated.  Also examined was the cause(s) of political instability and their different dimensions.  In doing so, secondary data was used for the gathering of data or as source of data and content analysis applied in the interpretation of the data so collected.

It has however been gathered that the phenomenon was derived from the diverse nation of the Nigerians political landscape, which consist of people with different backgrounds tradition and ancestry.  This tribal sentiments were amplified by the divide and rule policy of the British government.  This phenomenon brought  about distrust and lack of cooperation among  the dominant ethnic groups in Nigeria and this has made efforts geared towards national integration difficult till date.  The political instability so far recorded in Nigeria is linked to this ethnic rivalry.  To get out of this problem or existing problem demands the unrelentless effort of both the individual and the government so that Nigerians can take her rightful and leading position as the giant of Africa.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Since Nigeria had political independence in 1960 certain key problems have played dominant roles in determining the nature, character and direction of government and politics in the country.  Most of these issues have been described by scholars and commentators on Nigeria politics as the legacies of the country’s colonial experience, whose origins can be traced back to the almost one hundred years of colonial domination

One of the issues or fall-outs of the Nigerian federal system is ethnicity.  Ethnicity in Nigeria derives from the multifarious and diverse nature of the Nigerian territory, which consists of people of different background, ancestry and tradition.  In essence members of an ethnic group could then be described as consisting of those who regard themselves as being alike by virtue of their common ancestry, language, custom as well as tradition, Olisa et al (1990).

Ethnicity as a force in Nigerian politics originated from the colonial policies of the British, who, through their ‘divide and rule policy’.  Encouraged the use of different applications of colonial policies on the traditional institutions and structures of the various ethnic groups in Nigeria.

This unequal impact of colonial policies saw the partial exposure of western education by the British Missionaries to a particular part of the country, namely the  southern part of Nigeria, thereby alienating the northern part.  The dangers inherent in these segregationist policies soon became apparent in the 1940s, 1950s and soon after political independence in 1960.

In his work, Okwudiba Nnoli traces the origin of ethnicity in Nigeria and rightly blamed it squarely on European Imperialism.  He also wrote extensively on the origin of the struggles and clashes between the Igbos and Yorubas and Igbos and Hausas among others.  Nnoli sees tribalism which  became the recurring feature of Nigerian political life as part and parcel of colonial racism whose primary objective was the complete alienation of the colonized African, enabling a better and more complete domination and control of her.

Writing on social differentiation, ethnicity gender and class in African perspective on development edited by UCF Himmelstrand Dr. Egbosa, H. Osaghe noted that ethnicity is perhaps the most popular concept used in the analysis of African politics.  He is of the view that the character of present day ethnic groups and ethnic relation.

Since these dates primordial loyalty and clannishness characterized politics in Nigeria.  Truly, the distrust, rivalry and lack of co-operation that characterized the relationship between the three dominant ethnic groups in Nigeria led to the use,  by each ethnic groups of it’s region as basis for political activity.  The situation has remained like this and has even intensified.  What is more, ethnic clashes had erupted and threatened the foundation of Nigeria’s existence as a country, particularly at the dawn of the third millennium.

The force of ethnicity in Nigeria politics is great and it is common the interpret Nigerian politics in tribal terms.  Tribalism was used to explain a change of any government irrespective of whether the changes was brought about by a military coup or by the electoral process.  Conflicts and co-operation within the Nigerian states were similarly explained.  Public policy was presumed to be understood only in terms of distribution of resources along tribal lines, the result of the hegemony of one tribe or another or the direct result of the balancing of tribal forces.

In the main, ethnicity has weighed and impacted negatively and heavily on politics in Nigeria.  At present, ethnicity expressed itself in various ways in Nigeria, if  Nigeria must continue to be one strong, virile indissoluble entity, there is need to find ways of mediating the negative fall-outs of ethnicity in our body polity.  This is the main trust of this research work.  It is intended to trace the origins of ethnicity in Nigeria politics, it’s impact on our national development as well as what can be done to make ethnicity and  tribalism effective instruments of national development.  To achieve this purpose, the library becomes my major source of information.

• BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Since Nigeria achieved political freedom from Great Britain, certain key problems have played dominant roles in determining the nature and direction of government in the country.  Many writers and analysts have described most of these issues as the legacies of colonialism.

Among the key problems that pose a challenge to Nigeria federalism and corporate existence is ethnicity.  Ethnicity in Nigeria derives, no doubt, from the multifarious and diverse nature of the Nigerian territory, which consists of people of different background, ancestry and tradition.

Ethnicity as a force in Nigerian politics originated from the colonial policies of the British who through their ‘divide and rule policy’ encouraged the use of different applications of colonial policies on the traditional institutions and  structure of the various ethnic groups in Nigeria.   Doubtless this unequal impact of colonial policies saw the partial exposure of western education by the British missionaries to a particular part of the country, namely the southern part of Nigeria, thereby alienating the northern part.

The danger inherent in these discriminating policies soon became apparent in the 1960s and 1950s, when more educated and vocal southern agitated to greater participation in the governance of the country.  The northern people were not a match for the south in this direction and this led to contradictory views between the two divides of Nigeria as to when Nigeria shall be free from foreign rule.

Soon, the rivalry, distrust and lack of co-operation that characterized the relationship between the three dominant ethnic groups in Nigeria led to the use by each ethnic groups, of its region as a basis for political activity.

Following increased political awareness and solidarity among the main ethnic group, tribal or ethnic associations were formed, thus, there was the Jamiyyar Matanen Arewa of the northern Nigeria, the Egbe Omo Oduduwa of the Yoruba people in the West and the Igbo union of the Igbos in the East.

This polarization of Nigeria along tribal line impacts negatively on the country.  For instance, the conflict among the various ethnic groups for the promotion and advancement of ethnic interest at the expense of those of the nation has manifested itself in the recruitment of candidates into the Federal and State Civil Services as well as in the appointment of political office holders.

The ethnic factor in Nigerian politics is a fragile and volatile matter.  As Professor Nnoli noted, for long it was common to interpret African politics in tribal terms.  This applies strictly to Nigerian politics.  Tribalism is often used to explain a change of Nigerian government irrespective  of whether the change was brought about by military coup or by the electoral policies. Coup and cooperation among the major tribes were similarly explained.

As tension and crisis rock the Nigerian state it becomes necessary to find out this time, causes of the problems and seek ways of making tribalism an effective instrument of national unity.

• STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

For long it is common to explain and interpret politics in the African continent in tribal terms.  Virtually, everything that happens in each state is given ethnic connotation  and interpretation.  Nigeria for one is a country that is badly afflicted by the ethnic syndrome.  This has greatly permeated the fabric of political life in the country.  That ethnicity is a great issue of Nigerian politics can better be understood and appreciated when weighted against the background of the ethnic composition of the country.  As it were, the country is composed of more than two hundred and fifty language groups, which really make the country highly unwieldy.

Subsequent Nigerian nationalists and leaders have tried to persuade their people to demonstrate faith in the indivisibility of the country in spite of their diverse nature as ethnic clashes continue to erupt from time to time in the country.  These clashes have often caused many to question the genuineness of the call of many leaders to have faith in a united country.  Uneasiness has characterized the political atmosphere of the country as well as the relations between the various ethnic groups.

The nagging question then is: what is responsible for this state of affair?  Here some questions that are necessary are

• What is responsible for the ethnic tension and clashes in Nigeria?
• What factors impede effective control of the ethnic tendencies of Nigerian leaders and people?
• What is to be done to strengthen the Nigerian state so that it shall be able to make ethnics a strong instrument of national unity?
• What is central to ethnicity Nigeria political life?

• OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
• The purpose of the study is to find out the historical origin of the ethnic factor in Nigerian politics.
• It’s impact on the |Nigerian states as well as what should be done to starve of the specter of instability that haunts the country.
• Since ethnicity became introduced in Nigeria government and politics, the study shall also make useful suggestion on how to mediate the conflicts that have risen between and among the major ethnic groups.
• This is with a view to make them live harmoniously and cooperatively.

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study lies in the fact that it deviates from the tradition of most writers on the subject who focus their attention on the  ills of ethnicity without trying to find out the historical origins of ethnicity on Nigeria politics and on how best to solve the problem which the phenomenon has wrought on the Nigerian polity.

Our research seeks to find out how ethnicity can be made an effective or strong instrument of national unity.

Also a document on the appraisal of ethnicity in Nigeria politics shall form a reference point for researchers who may wish to go into further inquiry of ethnicity in future.

Finally, the research finding shall enable Nigerian leaders and indeed, other leaders in Africa to work harmoniously and co-operatively so that the gains of colonial struggles and political autonomy shall be maintained and consolidated.

• LITERATURE REVIEW

Quite a number of literatures have been produced on the subject of ethnicity  in Nigerian politics.  Early writers paid special attention to the negative influence of ethnicity and cautioned Nigerian leaders to threat the political terrain with tack or good words and carefulness.  Perhaps, Professor Okwudiba, Nnoli’s work.  Ethnic politics in Nigeria (1986) and ethnic politics in African in (1989) are the most incisive of the writings on the problem of ethnicity in Nigeria.  In the work, Professor Nnoli traces the origin of ethnicity in Nigeria and rightly blamed it squarely on European imperialism  He also wrote extensively on the origin of the struggles and clashes between the Igbos and Yoruba and Igbos and Hausas among others.  Nnoli sees tribalism which became the recurring feature of Nigerian political life as part and parcel of colonial racism who primary objective was the complete alienation of the colonized Africans enabling a better and more complete domination and control of him.

Writing on social differentiation ethnicity gender and class in African perspective on development  edited by U C F Himmelstrand, or Egbosa, H. Osaghe noted that ethnicity is perhaps the most popular concepts used in the analysis of African politics.  He is of the view that the character of present day ethnic groups and ethnic relation evolved with the modern political structures.  He considers this to the product of history and goes further to see the preponderance of the Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa/Fulani as the emergent realities in Nigeria, Dr. Egbosa holds slave trade responsible for laying the foundation for the new phase of ethnicity by tightening kingship bonds.  This makes every ethnic group conscious of it’s existences and has reduced politics to struggles for the extraction and distribution of national resources.

In his own contribution, Echezona (1998) pointed out that the colonial powers had forcibly fused the nations in Africa with the provision that the different tribes or nations or ethnic groups should sort themselves out there while they became umpires.  African leaders took over from where the colonial masters left.  To them colonial determined boundaries are sacrosanct but they do not see themselves as being responsible for managing the nation-state in such  a way as to legitimate themselves in the eyes of the different tribes or nations or ethnic group that come within their sway.

In the same vain, Hamza Alavi (1979) sees the nation-state as an import of imperialism and linked the chaotic nature of politics in Africa to the composition of ethnic groups in African states as well as the absence of organic link between the state and the domestic bourgeoisie in the post colonial state in the way one can think the bourgeois revolution and the nation state in Europe.

Claude Ake (1985) add another dimension to him, the state in  Africa, it’s lack of autonomy is manifested in it’s linkage to ethnicity, to religion and indeed, involvement in class struggle rather than staying about it.

These scholars are of the view that ethnicity is a major factor in the politics of African nations.  Nigeria having the largest concentration of ethnic groups is plagued by tribal politics.  The cause of this can only be found in imperialism.

Writing on the diversity of the ethnic composition  of Nigeria Azikiwe (1960) noted that even though Nigeria is a conglomerate of many multi-ethnic groups, the opportunity exists for mediating the differences between them and making the groups work towards national unity.  He drew examples from Switzerland, the former Soviet Union and Germany to demonstrate how diversity in the composition of a country can be used to pursue and achieve national unity.

Azikiwe tried to pin down the plurality that marks the nation-state system in Africa to European imperialism, which he noted, clearly was responsible for lumping diverse ethnic groups together.  This decision of the colonial rulers did not take cognizance of the wish of the people, neither did it play heed to the variations in orientation worldview and practices of the various ethnic nationalities.

Dr. Azikiwe was of the opinion that this decision of the Europeans to first negotiated political unions in Africa is responsible for the multiplicity of ethnic dissension and clashes which have remained pandemic  in African political life.  He believes that since African states have had to pass through harrowing colonial experience, there is need for African leaders to eschew bitterness and wrangling and work cooperatively to build a nation out of many nations.  This will afford Africans better opportunity to interact purposefully with other peoples of the world.

Writing on issue of politics and government in Nigeria, Onyishi (1996) pointed out that a number of issues such as revenue allocation, polarization of society along ethnic lines, minority majority uneasy relationship, the fragile nature of the Federal system in Nigeria  and religious conflicts are the major sources of disagreement between the multiethnic nationalities in the country.  He noted that soon after independence politics in Nigeria degenerated to regional affairs and people consider themselves members of a particular region first before looking up to Nigeria as their country.  This mode of thinking  heightened insecurity in the country as ethnic clashes and riots became a recurring feature of our political life.  The sharing of the resources of the country became contentious the moment a workable formula could not be worked out.  All these made the Nigerian volatile and relationship between the major ethnic groups uneasy.   The author was of the opinion that all the issues at stake should be ironed out by the Federating states of Nigeria so as to remain one indivisible and indissoluble nation.

The author wrote well, but he has not gone deep down to indicate why violence and great uneasiness keep remaining enduring landmarks in Nigerian political life: this is where our study is clearly different.

Maccido (2001) believed that Nigeria’s unity should remain because the forces of history have made imperialism that Nigerians live together as one people.  He notes that the amalgamation of (1914) has united all the peoples of Nigeria.  The British carried out this process in order to further their economic interests.  At the time they left, a multiplicity of problems arose which derived mainly from the diversity of culture in the country.  Since the history has made it a reality that all the ethnic groups should live together as members of one family, it won’t worth the while of Nigerians to disintegrate.  Maccido is strongly of the opinion that the ideals of oneness which Nigerian nationalists of the past cherished and fought had to keep Nigeria together should be allowed to be as a way of keeping their dreams alive.

In his book, Osadebe (1978) dwells a lot on the political history of Nigeria.  He paints out that the arrival of the British in Nigeria signaled the beginning of the unification of peoples of different cultural backgrounds.  As a result of differences in cultural  habits and worldview, problems of unity arose which in the main prompted the British to pursue unity in diversity.  In spite of spirited efforts in this direction the impact of ethnicity is strong and relevant in the politics of Nigeria.  He traces the origin of ethnicity in Nigeria politics to the ugly incident in the Western House of Assembly where tribalism generated by the Action Group (AG) made it impossible for Dr. Azikiwe of the NCNC. To form the government after winning the election there.  From this moment tribalism became ever present in the politics of Nigeria.  Every action of government and political leaders is explained in terms of ethnicity.  This strongly works against national unity.

However, the author is of the opinion that the various language groups in Nigeria can work together so that they can forge a strong and virile nation out of the many nationalities in Nigeria.  Though genuine efforts the various peoples of Nigeria can achieve political and ethnic unity despite diversity in culture and language.  Genuine political integration is essentially necessary in the country so as to make the people one, as has been the case in countries like the United States and Canada.  This can come about through cooperation and understanding between and among the various ethnic groups in Nigeria.

• HYPOTHESES

• Quest for national resources is the reason for ethnicity in Nigeria.
• The marginalization of some ethnic regions in Nigeria seems to be the cause of political instability in Nigeria.
• It seems overvaluation of power and over concentration of power in one tribe, that cause political instability in Nigeria.
  • A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Ethnicity is a fact that arose in Nigeria with the coming of the white man.  European colonialism game rise to the nation state system, which was strictly un-African.  However, the coming of political independence made manifest the latent problems of European territorial mode of political organisation.  Since our study touches more on European imperialism, our framework of analysis shall be the theory of imperialism.

The major exponents of this theory were V.I. Lenin and John A Hobson.  In his book, Imperialism, published in 1902, Hobson noted, that inequalities in wealth and income distribution in Britain had weakened the consumption power of British working classes, and this in turn made it almost impossible for producers to utilize fully their industrial capacity.  Faced with dwindling domestic investment outlets, British capitalists  turned their attention to economically under-exploited regions of the world.  Britain like the French established colonies as archives for their surplus capital.  This was the basis for imperialism and colonialism.

However, V.I. Lenin pushed this theory further in his book; ‘Imperialism’: the Highest Stage of Capitalism development and not just one possible set of foreign policy options out of many.

This basic elements are the formation of local and international monopolies backed by high tariff barriers in the metropolitan societies and the territorial division of the world.  The relevance of this theory to our studies in the fact that following the territorial division of the world (imperialism) there arose the concept of the nation state system in Africa.

Obviously, the nation-state mode of territorial organization is uniquely in African as Africans prior to this historical epoch had a unique way through which individual groups or tribes organized themselves.  This system ensured group or tribal harmony save for inter-tribal wars that marked the international relation of that period.

However, the Europeans on arrival in African distorted the people’s political system and carved the continent into nation-states.  This did not take into account the plural or diverse nature of the African society.  In some places ethnic groups were separated.  In others, ethnic groups were forced to merge with other ethnic groups to form a nation.  There are no clearly discernible long processes of communication or association before such merger and the ideology behind the merger came from the imperial state.  As a result, squabbles and conflicts within a nation-state assumed the forms of conflicts between nations.

Struggles within each nation state became struggles to dominate the state and thereby allocate the resources of the state in such a manner that suites the political leaders.   In Nigeria, the British lumped together more than two hundred and fifty languages groups.  These were people with different orientations, idiosyncrasies  and culture.

In the aftermath of political independence, it became the preoccupation of the major ethnic groups to entrench themselves in strategic positions in the politics of the country.  This has  clearly engendered endless struggles and bickering between and even among the ethnic groups.  Politics and political actions are usually interpreted along ethnic lines with the result that national unity is fragile and even threatened  group loyalties and cleavages have become more important and precious than national unity and efforts at national building have been very difficult.

• METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

This research work is based mainly on the library.  As a result our data came from textbooks, journals, magazines, and newspapers.  This methodological approach was necessitated by the nature of the research question, which limits a researcher to specific content analysis.  Specifically, I have had to rely on comprehensive works of respected authorities in the area of our study.

(C)    METHOD OF DATA  ANALYSIS:

The data generated in the course of this research were clearly analyzed in the light of experience and reason as they affect the political development of Nigeria.

• SCOPE AND THE LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Ethnicity as a crucial aspect of politics in Africa, particularly in Nigeria requires in-depth analysis so as to understand it’s origins, problems and prospects.

To treat this problem as a whole will be too much for the requirement of this research work.

According to the research work shall limited itself to the origin of ethnicity in Nigeria, it’s operative forms in the national life of Nigeria and how ethnicity can be structured to be an effective instrument for national unity.

At the recommendations are made on how best to treat the ethnic phenomenon so that the diverse peoples of Nigeria can stay and live together in one country.

Furthermore, the topic of our research ‘ETHNICITY AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN NIGERIA’ is a very wide and that could not be successfully carried out without hindrances.  Expectedly, a number of factors placed limitations on the scope of the study.

In the first place, the nature of the study limits a distant researcher to use of specific content analysis in that a number of studies have been carried out on ethnicity and it’s problems in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa.

Again, the researcher encountered a lot of problems in trying to gather the requisite materials for the study.

Thirdly, the researcher could not get any grant from any organisation despite spirited efforts made in that direction.  Alternatively, the researcher had to rely on meager finances from friends and relations.

Finally, the time available for the researcher was exceedingly short given the nature of the problem under study.  To meet the time of submission of the research report, the researcher was compelled to work under strenuous conditions.

• DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bourgeoisie:    means a class of

self-employed or well to do persons engaged in commercial or industrial or professional pursuits for the purpose of profit-making and social prestige as distinct from employed persons who work to earn a living and occasionally attain respectability.

Capital:  means value, which begets surplus value as a result of the exploitation of wages or labour.

Capitalism:  means an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production and distribution of goods determined mainly in a free market.

Colonialism  means a policy of imperialism states aimed at the direct enslavement of the peoples of economically backward countries.

Ethnicity:  refers to the consciousness of a race, which gears them towards nationalism.

Imperialism:  means monopoly capitalism, the highest and last stage of its development, and the eve of the socialist country

Nation:   means a group of people who speak one language, have one culture and occupy a definite  territory.

Tribe:  means racial group, particularly one united by language and customs, living as a community under one or more chiefs.

REFERENCES

1. Okwudiba Nnoli (1986); Ethnic Politics in Nigeria (Enugu:

Fourth Dimension Publishers Ltd), page.

• Okwudiba Nnoli (1989): Ethnic Politics in Africa (Ibadan:

Vantage Publishers) page.

• L.F. Himmelstrand (1994): African Perspective on

Development (New York: St. Martina Press).

• Nduba Echezona (1998): International Politics in the Post-Cold

Ward Era (Awka: Meks Publishers Ltd ).

• Gamza Ali (1979): Ethnic Crisis in Africa in U L F.

(Himmelstrand), African perspectives on Development. (New York: St. Martins Press

• Claude Ake (1985): A Political Economy of the African

(London: Longman UK)

• Bade Animode (1988): A Political Economy of the African Crisis

(London: Zed Books Ltd).

• Azikiwe Nnamdi (1969): Tribalism: An Effective Instrument for

National Unity (Lagos: Government Printers).

• Okanya (1996): Issues in Nigeria Government and Politics

(Enugu: Acena Publishers Ltd).

• Obasi Igwe (1989): Introduction to Strategic Studies, (Lagos:

Monthoure Publishers Ltd).

• Nduba Echezona (1992): Hegemonism or New World Order

(Awka: Mek Publishers Ltd).

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