ABSTRACT
The world is at the verge of having a global crisis, with environmental degradation
and malnourishment being two points of focus. Industrial agriculture, otherwise
referred to as conventional agriculture, has led to ecological degradation globally.
The use of heavy machinery, chemical fertilizers, heavy irrigation, and intensive
tillage have had negative impacts on the environment and future generations. A
solution in form of sustainable agriculture and its methods have the potential to
replace conventional agriculture. Sustainable agriculture attempts to produce food in
the same quantity as industrial agriculture, but while ensuring environmental, social,
and economic factors are at equilibrium. The willingness of farmers to adopt such
techniques, however, remains unclear. This study examined farmers’ perceptions and
personal adoption of a newly introduced sustainable agriculture technique,
permaculture, in a rural, semi-arid region of northeastern Nigeria. All respondents
participated in a training program in permaculture in 2015. Perceptions were
measured based on increase in crop yields and social benefits. Questionnaires (n =
34) were used to obtain data from respondents. Using descriptive statistics,
multinomial logistic regression analyses, and crosstabulations, I found that 33 of the
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34 respondents experienced an increase in their crop yields. While most respondents
experienced social benefits, these benefits were more commonly reported among
women. My findings suggest that rural farmers have a positive disposition toward
sustainable agriculture and permaculture in particular.a
Keywords: Conventional agriculture, crop yield, Nigeria, perceptions, permaculture,
social benefit, sustainable agriculture
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
READERS’ APPROVAL ………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………. iv
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… v
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………………………………………. viii
LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………………………………. ix
INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
HYPOTHESES, AIMS, & OBJECTIVES ……………………………………………………………… 10
CHAPTER 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
METHODS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Study Site ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Data Collection & Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Ethical Guidelines ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
CHAPTER 3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Demographic Characteristics…………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Occupation and Crop Yield……………………………………………………………………………………… .16
Social Aspect……………………………………………………………………………………………………………17
CHAPTER 4 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
DISCUSSION …………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
CHAPTER 5 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
APPENDIX I ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25
REFERENCES…………………………………………..…………………………………26
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Social index of respondents based on four categories……………….…….18
Table 2: Cross-tabulation between gender and whether respondents said they shared
their harvests with other participants in the SAP program…………………………..18
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Permaculture pattern done on the farm model in Bole community….….…5
Figure 2: Compost manure used for permaculture in Bole community……….……..5
Figure 3: Photograph of farmers being trained at SAP …………………….….…..…9
Figure 4: Map of Adamawa state…………………………………………..………..11
Figure 6: Ariel view of the farmland in Bole community……………………..……12
Figure 7: Bar chart showing Local Government Area of different respondents……..16
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The word sustain originated from the Latin word sustinere, which means to maintain
or to keep in existence (Gold, 2015). Sustainability is based on the philosophy that
we are obligated to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising
that of the future. A historical definition of agriculture states that it is a science which
educates us on what crops are to be planted on a particular type of soil and what
processes are involved in order to achieve high yields. Understanding the definition
of these two terms results in a concept known as sustainable agriculture, it is an
essential motion that is important for the future of farming and may protect the
world’s food and crop system from degenerating. Sustainable agriculture can simply
be elucidated as a process of producing crops in such a way that the economic,
environmental and social aspects of farming are at equilibrium (Kopali 2013). It can
also be defined as a philosophy based on human achievements and understanding the
future impacts of our activities on the environment and other living organisms.
Various researchers have described sustainable agriculture, each description depends
on the location and is different from one zone to the other, there is yet to be a
finalized definition of sustainable agriculture (Kotile, 1998). Sustainable agriculture
is often referred to as alternative farming, organic farming, ecological farming or
regenerative farming (Lockeretz, 1988). Sustainable agriculture is the solution to
problems that come along with farming in an ecological way (Lal, 2008). Unlike
conventional agriculture which is driven by profit and productivity, sustainable
agriculture is more concerned with the use of physical, ecological, chemical,
economic and social aspects of agriculture to develop new farming methods that are
2
safe and have no negative effect on the environment (Lichtfouse, 2009). It aims to
maintain soil fertility, elude pollution, use of crop rotation and use of animals such as
cows instead of machines (Trewaves, 2001). Malnourished children in
underdeveloped nations, overweight children in developed nations, global warming,
worldwide chemical pollutions which often result to dead zones, desertification and
much more are obvious reasons that conventional agriculture is, in fact, detrimental
to the Earth (Lal, 2008). Sustainable agriculture puts into consideration the medium
and long term effects of agricultural practices on the agroecosystem. It endeavors to
attain great yield and at the same time achieving ecological equilibrium to gain soil
fertility and environmental hygiene. It takes a proactive approach instead of solving
problems as they occur (FAO, 2016). A research on 17 states in the United States of
America deduced that sustainable farmers mostly made use of cover crops, minimum
tillage, crop rotation, and mowing as the major practices for weed control (Hanson,
1995).
There are many benefits of sustainable agriculture some of which might include:
Increase in soil quality via soil building techniques such as cover crops, crop
rotation, minimum or no tillage and use of organic manure such as compost. These
practices improve soil structure and function which encourage soil’s fauna and flora.
The soil has a better capacity to retain nutrients and water; energy and nutrient cycles
are also increased. These practices also helps to control soil erosion by protecting it
from erosive forces. Soil biodiversity increases and the loss of nutrients are reduced.
Good soil tends to have an effect on, harvest, it increases yields and also creates
healthier crops. Due to chemical fertilizers and pesticides, agricultural areas tend to
pollute groundwater. Fertilizers used for conventional farming are made with
3
phosphorus and nitrogen that eventually find their way into rivers, lakes, and other
water bodies, this results in the excess nutrition of microorganisms such as
phytoplankton found in the water (Mushtaq, 2015). The microorganisms then begin
to deplete the oxygen, suffocating aquatic animals and finally resulting in dead
zones. The use of these chemical fertilizers will have a long-term effect on the
sustainability of farming, consumer’s health and the health of the farmer’s
themselves. Replacing these synthetic products with more organic manure such as
animal compost and hay, enhances soil structure and water infiltration decreases the
risk of water pollution.
Sustainable agriculture decreases the need for non-renewable resources by
decreasing agrochemical demands. Carbon found in the soil can be sequestered by
using sustainable techniques, this process mitigates the greenhouse effect and global
warming (Gold, 2015). As more organic carbon is retained in the soil, the potential
of mitigating climate change also increases. Nevertheless, there is need for more
research in this field. There is little or no ecological data on soil organic carbon for
developing countries, with a lack of comparison between farm systems in Africa and
Latin America (Lal, 2008).
Sustainable agriculture also helps support biodiversity at all levels of organization.
At the gene level, indigenous and adapted seeds and breeds are more suitable as they
are able to resist infections and can handle climatic stress compared to any hybrid
variety. At the species level, variation of plants, soil microorganisms, and animals
enhance the nutrient and energy cycle for agricultural production (Hanson, 1995). At
the ecosystem level, the conservation of natural environment around the organic
4
farms and lack of chemical use create appropriate habitats for wildlife. The use of
neglected species such as loquat, longan, and cashew, often for crop rotation, helps
decrease erosion of agrobiodiversity, in the process creating a healthier gene pool
(FAO, 2016). Although there are various sustainable techniques as it relates to
agriculture, this study is going to discuss about the permaculture technique.
The word permaculture is a combination of the words permanent and agriculture, it is
a different approach to sustainable agriculture. It proves that it is possible to design
the ecosystem to serve the human population without degrading the environment
(Rhodes, 2015). It integrates animals, human, landscapes and plants into a single
functioning system. Permaculture began in Australia in 1978 and was introduced by
Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, it has now developed into an international
movement with demonstration sites and farm models around the world (Simmons,
2006). Research has proven it successful in every climate including the tropics,
mountains, shores and deserts (Holmgren, 2002). It does not require a lot of
materials, energy or human labor for, maintenance; it is powered by the recycling of
waste products. It decreases pollution and also increases yield by the use of highyielding species.
Permaculture is a system of design that aims to imitate nature by thoroughly
observing the natural cycles, energies, and resources on a farm site. By creating
patterns such as the ones shown in figure two that harmonize with patterns of the
earth permaculture assists with energy flow and water runoff in farm lands (Bell,
2005). Permaculture makes use of manure which is basically made of animal waste
and hay, manure is composed of most elements needed for the growth of plants. It
5
helps improve the soil structure, subsequently improving water infiltration leading to
decrease in crop water stress and erosion (Holmgren, 2002).
The population of the world is expected to reach 9.2 billion people by the year 2050,
this is 34% higher than it is today. With this dramatic change, it is expected that food
Figure 2: Compost manure used for permaculture in Bole community. Credit:
Ogundijo Rotimi
Figure 1: Permaculture pattern done on the farm model in Bole
community. Credit: Ogundijo, Rotimi
6
production will also have to increase to accommodate the entire population. The
ability of African farmers to handle this drastic change is a course for concern,
especially with the fact that African’s are already facing harsh factors such as: Food
security, climate uncertainty, malnutrition and economic pressure. Countries such as
South-Africa and Kenya have begun to find sustainable solutions to this problem.
The World Wildlife Fund have made efforts to promote sustainable agriculture in
South Africa and minimize the adverse effects of farming on the environment
(WWF-SA, 2014). The Kenya Sustainable Agriculture Land Management
Project has helped small-holder farmers build smart agriculture skills. It has
implemented Agroforestry, on approximately 45,000 hectares in Kenya’s Nyanza
and Western provinces (The World Bank, 2015).
Agriculture in Nigeria has over the past decade continued to deteriorate. Up until the
1970’s, agriculture in Nigeria was its major source of income; but due to the
discovery of oils just before independence and the adverse effect of the civil war in
the 1960’s, agricultural development has not been much of a success (Manyong,
2005). Since independence in 1960, decisions taken by the government has left
agriculture in second place to oil produce. Coffee, rubber and palm oil plantations in
the East and Mid-West were deserted, same for the cocoa plantations in the West and
the groundnut pyramids in the North (Adedeji, 2010). Agriculture in Nigeria used to
provide 85% of its foreign exchange making food very cheap (Adedeji, 2010).
Nigeria’s overdependence on oil has put its economy in a downward spiral. The
government and nation at large have come to this realization and various programs
have been brought up with the purpose of ushering the population back into
agriculture. Unfortunately very little has been achieved, some of these programs
7
include National Land Development Authority (NALDA), Operation Feed the
Nation (OFN), National Food Acceleration Protection Program (NAFPP) and many
more. There have also been policies put in place such as the policy of self-sufficiency
in food and raw material production, rural development, self-employment,
privatization of public enterprises and increased export promotion which are all
under the structural adjustment program (Titilola, 1987). The trend of green
revolution and organic agriculture originated from already developed countries like
the United States of America. These programs are thought to have failed in Nigeria
due to factors like:
Lack of investigation and monitoring of already established programs, to
evaluate their success or failure rate leading to abandonment. (reason why
this research is a necessity as it investigates the already established
sustainable program by AUN for farmers in the Bole Community)
Lack of properly functioning agricultural policies in Nigeria that do not
support sustainable farming
The stereotypic belief that agriculture is for the poor, this leads to negative
attitudes towards farming
Lack of knowledge on new ideas and developments in the agricultural sector
Economic constraints (Adeola, 2015)
Sustainable Agriculture in Nigeria is still at a very young stage, to achieve the goal
of sustainability, it is essential for the farmers to gain a better understanding of the
system. Nevertheless, it is important to know that no agriculture is sustainable except
it is profitable and is able to maintain farming families, in the sense that it provides
8
very good income and good quality of life. Knowledge is a part of human behavior,
hence placing emphasis on the importance of examining farmer’s perception of the
idea of SAP.
Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest level of produce, observed; Nigeria is located
there and is characterized by rain-fed agriculture, lack of food and management
practices (Adeola, 2015). This research is designed to investigate the perception of
farmers with regards to different practices of sustainable agriculture.
The American University of Nigeria (AUN) received a grant of twenty six thousand,
six hundred and sixty three dollars from the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation (SDC) to train IDP farmers and provide them with start-up equipment
and seeds. The Office of Sustainability at AUN took up that project; they delivered
and distributed seeds and farm implements to 100 farmers. In addition, they
conducted a two-day training for one hundred farmers in June 2016. These farmers
were taught the principles and techniques of sustainable agriculture, specifically
permaculture.
The type of agriculture used by most of these farmers before SAP was conventional
agriculture, which is based on the use of industrial chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides and other synthetic products for farming. Initially, this was accepted by
farmers worldwide, harvests came in multiples, more than farmers had seen before.
There was little or no degeneration of the soil and the pests had not adapted to
pesticides (Mushtaq, 2015). With time, pesticides have become a household need;
the common use of these products has caused havoc in our soil and water. They
9
denature the soil and kill soil organisms that play an important role in preserving the
fertility, drainage, aeration, structure and function of the soil.
Figure 3: Photograph of farmers being trained at SAP. Credit Ogundijo, Rotimi.
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AIMS AND OBJECTIVES & HYPOTHESES
Aim
To determine the perception of farmers on a newly introduced sustainable agriculture
in Bole community.
Objectives
To understand the perceived contributions of the sustainable agricultural project
to enhancing social relationships
To understand the perceived contributions of the sustainable agricultural project
to enhancing crop yield
To identify the type of sustainable technique they were taught
To recommend my findings to the AUN community.
Research Questions
1. What is the perceived effect of SAP on crop yield among rural farmers in Bole
community?
2. What is the perceived effect of SAP on social relationships among rural farmers
in Bole community?
Hypotheses
H1: There is a positive perceived impact of SAP on crop yields in Bole
community
H2: There is a positive perceived impact of SAP on social relationships in Bole
community
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