Page Length: 48

Size: 532 KB

Format: PDF & Word

5,000.00

ABSTRACT

 

 

The Pulverized stem bark of Indigofera arrectawas exhaustively extracted with methanol and concentrated in vacuo using rotary evaporator at 40 0C.The extract was later subjected to solvent partitioning to yield soluble extracts of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, chloroform, and methanol. Genernal phytochemical screening of the fractions revealed the presence of secondary metabolites such as cardiac glycoside,steroid, terpenes flavonoids and tannins. The antimicrobial activity against S. aureus,S. pyogenes,S.feacalis, S.typhii, E.coli C. ulcerans,P. vulgaris and C.albicans was tested using the tube dilution and agar diffusion methods as outlined by the NCCLS. The results of the antimicrobial activity as indicated by the zonesof inhibition of growth of microorganism ranged from 20mm to 40mm for the n-hexane extract, 16mm to 21mm for ethyl acetate extract and 20mm to 27mm for the methanol extract. The MIC result for the n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts ranged from 7.5mg/ml to 15mg/ml. The MIC of 15mg/ml exhibited by the n-hexane extract against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria indicates broad spectrum activity of Indigofera arrect. The n-hexane fractions was subjected to Column Chromatography using silica gel to yield 87 fractions, which were combined based on their thin layer chromatography analysis and recrystallized in methanol to give a pure white crystalline powder, which melts at 144oC. The structure of the isolated compound was established by spectroscopic analysis and by direct comparison of the data obtained with those reported in literature to be Stigmasterol (3β,22E-Sigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

Title page

Abstract

Table of contents

List of abbreviations

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       Introduction

1.1       Definition of a drug

1.2       Medicinal plants

1.3       Medicinal plant research

1.4       Aim

1.4.1    Objectives

1.5       Scope and limitations of research

1.6       Justification of the research

 

CHAPTER TWO

2.0       Literature review

2.1       Botanical description of the genus Indigoferaarrecta

2.1.1    Other botanical information

2.1.2    Origin and geographical distribution

2.2       Chemical constituents of indigoferaarrecta

2.2.1    Traditional medicinal uses

2.2.2    Uses of some of the genus

2.3       Production and international trade

2.3.1    Pharmacological properties

2.3.2 Adulterations and substitutes

2.3.3 Growth and development

2.3.4    Ecology

2.3.5 Management

2.3.6    Propagation and planting

2.3.7    Diseases and pests

2.3.8    Harvesting

2.3.9    Yield

2.4       Handling after harvest

2.4.1    General description of Indigoferaarrecta (HOCHST  EX.A.RICH )

2.5       Review of some natural products from plants, tests and  their  uses

2.5.1Alkaloids

2.5.2Flavonoids

2.5.3    Saponins

2.5.4    Glycosides

2.5.5    Tannins

2.5.6    Steroids

2.5.7.   Terpenoids

2.6       Factors which can affect the level or the composition of the active ingredients in medicinal plant

2.7       Some microorganisms and their effects on the human body

2.7.1    Staphylococci

2.7.2    Streptococci

2.7.3    Candida

2.7.4    Enterobacteriaceae

2.7.5    Klebsiella

2.7.6    Escherichia coli

2.7.7    Salmonellae

 

CHAPTER THREE

3.0       Materials and method

3.1       Materials/reagents/equipment and analytical procedure

3.1.1    Solvents

3.1.2    Equipment

3.1.3    Reagent

3.1.4    Microbial media, test organisms and equipment for antimicobial test

3.1.5    The identification and preparation of plant material

3.1.6    Extraction procedure for crude extract

3.2       Preliminary phytochemical screening

3.2.1    Test for steroids/terpenes

3.2.2    Test for flavonoids

3.2.3    Test for alkaloids

3.2.4    Test for tannins

3.2.5    Test for anthraquinones

3.2.6    Test for saponins

3.2.7    Test for glycoside (fecl3 test)

3.3       Antimicrobial screening

3.3.1    Preparation of bacterial test organisms

3.3.2    Preparation of fungal test organisms

3.3.3    The stock dilution of the plant extracts

3.3.4    Preparation of the nutrient agar

3.3.5    Preparation of the sabouraud dextrose agar media

3.3.6    The punched agar diffusion method [bryant, 1972]

3.3.7    Preparation of inoculums of test organisms

3.3.8    Sensitivity test of the extract using agar diffusion method

3.3.9    Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration using tube dilution method

3.4       Minimum bactericidal concentration (mbc)

3.4.1    Chromatographic purification of extracts

3.4.2    Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

3.4.3    Column chromatography

3.4.4    Solvents system/elution

3.4.5    Gel filtration chromatography

3.4.6    Thin layer chromatography of the n-hexane extract

3.4.7    Column chromatography of n-hexane fraction

 

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0       Results

4.1       Result of extraction

4.2       Result of phytochemical screening

4.3       Results of antimicrobial activity

4.4       Result of chromatographic separation

4.5       Column chromatography of n-hexane fraction

4.6       Isolation of EB

4.7       TLC analysis of EB

4.8       Result of antimicrobial activity of compound EB

 

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0       Discussion of result

5.1       Extraction

5.2       Phytochemical screening

5.3       Antimicrobial screening

5.4       Physical and chemical properties of EB

5.4.1    Spectral analysis

5.4.2    FTIR

5.4.3    1H NMR

5.4.4    13C NMR

5.4.5    DEPT

 

CHAPTER SIX

6.0       Summary, conclusion and recommendation

6.1.      Summary

6.2       Conclusion

6.3       Recommendation

References

 

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

 

cm                                                                         Centimeter

 

cm-1                                                                     Per centimeter

 

Hz                                                                         Hertz

 

ml                                                                          Milliliter

 

nm                                                                         Nanometer

 

ppm                                                                      Parts per million

 

UV                                                                        Ultra violet

 

IR                                                                          Infrared

 

λmax                                                                     Wave length of maximum absorption

 

TLC                                                                      Thin layer chromatography

 

δ                                                                             Chemical shift in ppm

 

s                                                                              Singlet

 

d                                                                             Doublet

 

dd                                                                          Double doublet

 

MHz                                                                     Mega hertz

 

%                                                                           Percentage

 

Rf                                                                          Retardation factor

 

HMBC                                                                Hetero nuclear multiple bond correlation

 

HSQC                                                                 Homo nuclear single quantum coherence

 

COSY                                                                 Correlation spectroscopy

 

DEPT                                                                 Distortionless enhancement by polarization transfer

 

MIC Mimimum inhibitory concentration

 

 

 

MBCMimimum bactericidal concentration

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

 

  • INTRODUCTION

 

 

  • Definition of a drug

 

A drug can be described as any chemical substance that has no nutritional value when

 

introduced into the body but causes some physiological effects within the system (Mbah, 2000). Drugs are classified under pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutical drug, according to Dey (2006), also refers to as medicine or medicament, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases.

 

Some pharmaceuticals occur naturally in plants. These can be called phyto pharmaceuticals. By the strictest definition, they are drugs or chemicals that may have health related effects but are not considered essential nutrients. Protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are regarded as essential nutrients. Some pharmaceuticals found in plants include gedunin and nimbolide from Azadirachta indica (Neem) (Khalid and Duddeck, 1993); santonin, a sesquiterpenoid lactone is found in species of Artemisia which grows in Asia, quinine and alkaloid occurs in the bark of cinchona tree; penincillin- a beta-lactam is produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium (Finar, 2003) and reserpine-an alkaloid is isolated from Rauwolfia plant.

 

 

1.2Medicinal plants

 

According to biblical records, Prophet Ezekiel reported that the fruits will serve as food and their leaves for healing (Ezekiel 47:12). Thus, the use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to thousands of years ago as the earliest humans used various plants to treat illness

 

1

 

 

(Dey, 2006). Medicinal plants or healing herbs, as they are called, are used in treating and preventing specific ailments and diseases and as such are considered to play a beneficial role in health care.

 

Srivastava et al., (1996) earlier stated that hundreds of plant species are recognized as having medicinal values and four out of every five of those plants are collected from the wild forest while most are from the flora of developing countries. The medicinal properties or values may be present in one or all the plants parts like roots, stem, back, leaves, flower, fruit or seeds.

 

In fact, with all the progress in synthetic chemistry and biotechnology, plants are still indispensable source of drugs and natural products on the basis of their therapeutics (Lawn, 1993).

 

Some common medicinal plants that occur in our locality includeAzadirachta indica

 

(Neem),   Ocimum   gratissiumpersea    americana,    Vernonica   amygdaline,   Astonia    boonei,

 

Zanthoxyllium gilleti and Bucchslozia coreacae among others.

 

 

 

1.3    Medicinal plant research

 

The efficacy of these medicinal plants is based on the presence of secondary metabolites which belong to a group of compounds called natural products. Natural products are those chemical compounds derived from living organisms, plants, animals, insects and the study of natural products is the investigation of their structure formation, applications and purpose in the organisms. The drugs or active ingredients derived from natural products are usually secondary metabolites, for example, terpenes, flavonoids, saponins and alkaloids and their derivatives. Today, these compounds must be pure and highly characterized compounds through scientific research.

2

 

 

Medicinal plant research starts by people carrying out general screening of plants which are collected either randomly or based on local reputations as medicinal plants after botanically identified by a reputable authority or plant taxonomist. This screening consists mainly of solvent extraction and standard tests of the extracts for the presence of such class of compounds or secondary metabolites as alkaloids, saponins and phenolic compounds. This in itself may not lead to the discovery of any new biologically active compound if carried out competently and consistently but it could provide data from which plants with potential biological activity could be selected for further detailed study (Adjanohoun et al., 1991,Farnsworth,1996).

 

The extracts are then fractionated with a view of isolating pure compounds. Modern isolation techniques include all types of chromatography often guided by bioassays to isolate the active compounds. The chromatographic procedures include absorption and partition chromatography in columns, thin layer and recently high performance liquid Chromatography. The structures of the isolatein modern times are elucidated primarily by spectroscopic techniques. The compounds can be identified as already known compounds or entirely new compounds.

 

 

1.3.1 AIM

 

  1. The aim of this work was to justify or otherwise the claimed ethnomedicinal uses of the plant

 

 

 

 

 

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES

 

 

  1. Collection, proper botanical identification, drying and pulverizing of the plant.

 

 

3

 

 

  1. Extraction of the powdered plant material using different solvents based on the elutropic series i.e from non-polar to most polar.

 

III.The  extract  of  this  plant  would  be  subjected  to  phytochemical  and  antimicrobial

 

screening

 

  1. Analytical separations     involving     several     consecutive     steps     of     chromatographic

 

techniques.

 

  1. Structural elucidation of the isolated compound(s) using  spectral techniques

 

 

 

 

 

1.4:SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH

 

 

 

 

The scope of this research work would be:

 

 

  1. The phytochemical screening, antibacterial, antifungal screening, isolation, characterization and structural elucidation of the active principles of Indigofera arrecta.

 

 

  • JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH

 

The need to know the active ingredients in the stem of Indigofera arrecta which are responsible for the cure/treatment of various ailments such as epilepsy, sores treatment, diarrhea and ulcer and to have scientific evidence of the claims of the ethnomedicinal practices of the stem of Indigofera arrecta.

DOWNLOAD COMPLETE WORK

DISCLAIMER: All project works, files and documents posted on this website, eProjectTopics.com are the property/copyright of their respective owners. They are for research reference/guidance purposes only and some of the works may be crowd-sourced. Please don’t submit someone’s work as your own to avoid plagiarism and its consequences. Use it as a reference/citation/guidance purpose only and not copy the work word for word (verbatim). The paper should be used as a guide or framework for your own paper. The contents of this paper should be able to help you in generating new ideas and thoughts for your own study. eProjectTopics.com is a repository of research works where works are uploaded for research guidance. Our aim of providing this work is to help you eradicate the stress of going from one school library to another in search of research materials. This is a legal service because all tertiary institutions permit their students to read previous works, projects, books, articles, journals or papers while developing their own works. This is where the need for literature review comes in. “What a good artist understands is that nothing comes from nowhere. The paid subscription on eProjectTopics.com is a means by which the website is maintained to support Open Education. If you see your work posted here by any means, and you want it to be removed/credited, please contact us with the web address link to the work. We will reply to and honour every request. Please notice it may take up to 24 – 48 hours to process your request.

WeCreativez WhatsApp Support
Administrator (Online)
Hello and welcome. I am online and ready to help you via WhatsApp chat. Let me know if you need my assistance.