TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..ii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………………………………………………….iv
TABLEOF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….v
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..vii
CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY ……………………………………………………………………………………….1
1.2 Statement of problem …………………………………………………………………………………………………..3
1.3 Objective of study ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5
1.4 Research hypothesis……………………………………………………………………………………………………..5
1.5 Research questions………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
1.6 Significance of the study……………………………………………………………………………………………….5
1.7 Scope and Limitations to the study ……………………………………………………………………………….6
1.8 Organization of study …………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
1.9 Definition of terms ………………………………………………………………………………………………….6
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
CHAPTER 2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
2.2 United States Foreign Policy towards Africa………………………………………………………………….9
2.3CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………….14
2.3.1 Foreign policy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………14
2.3.2National interest……………………………………………………………………………………………………17
2.3.3 Cold War……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..18
2.4 Theoretical framework……………………………………………………………………………………………….19
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28
CHAPTER 3……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………………………………………..30
3.1 Preamble ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30
3.2 Research design………………………………………………………………………………………………………….30
3.3 Methods of data collection…………………………………………………………………………………………..31
3.4 Data Analysis Technique…………………………………………………………………………………………….31
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CHAPTER 4……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32
DATA ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32
4.1 U.S Africa relations during the Cold War……………………………………………………………………32
4.2 Post- Cold War Relations and U.S interest in Africa after the Cold War ………………………….35
4.2.1 The New World Order……………………………………………………………………………………………..37
4.2.2 Disengagement from Africa ……………………………………………………………………………………..37
4.2.3 African Solutions to African Problems……………………………………………………………………..40
4.3 Clinton’s partnership with Africa …………………………………………………………………………………..41
4.4 George .W. Bush and Africa ……………………………………………………………………………………….44
4.4.1 Economic policy of Bush ………………………………………………………………………………………….46
4.4.2 Terrorism and U.S –Africa Relations after 9/11 ………………………………………………………..49
4.5 U.S –Africa Policy during the Obama Administration……………………………………………………..54
4.5.1 Africa and Obama’s first term …………………………………………………………………………………54
4.5.2 An Appraisal of Obama’s African policy ………………………………………………………………….63
CHAPTER 5……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………72
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….72
5.1 SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….72
5.2 Recommendation………………………………………………………………………………………………………..73
5.3 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………74
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….75
JOURNALS, REPORTS AND ARTICLES ………………………………………………………………………….77
WEB SOURCES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………78
vii
ABSTRACT
This paper examined trends in the United States-Africa relations in the Post-Cold War era
and also critically examined the various foreign policies of the United States in relations to
Africa with the ultimate aim of identifying the policies that were continued and those that
were changed. Some scholars argue that there has been no significant difference in the Cold
War and Post-Cold War relations while others argue that the United States interest has
changed. The findings of this work shows that even though the foreign policies of the United
States‘ pertaining to Africa have continued to change, the interests of the United States have
not really witnessed any significant changes. This research work adopts the descriptive and
analytical approach to examine Africa‘s internal dynamics in areas such as security, trade,
foreign assistance, terrorism, democracy and governance. The research work is based on
Dependency Theory and Constructivism Theory and focuses on the different Post-Cold War
administrations of the United States using their foreign policy initiatives.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The United States (US) relation with the African continent began in 1565 when the first set of
slaves landed in Florida. Between 1798 and 1808, approximately 200,000 slaves were
brought to America. At the other end, private missionaries and educators immigrated to
Africa to offer support services and advance the cause of their faith to Africans. It was not
until 1808 that the US officially outlawed the slave trade. Indeed, several attempts were made
by African Americans through the American Colonization Society to return Africans to
Africa notably in 1816, 1819 and extend some form of liberty to African Americans in 1865.
These movements contributed largely to the founding of Liberia in 1822 as an American
colony. The colony became independent in 1847 and in 1862, the United States established
diplomatic relations with Liberia. The 1941 declaration of the Atlantic Charter calling for the
freedom of nations was equally seized upon by Africans to kick-start liberation movements
across Africa against their colonial overlords. In 1914, Marcus Garvey, created the Universal
Negro Improvement Association to agitate for improved conditions of African American and
the momentum was extended to cover addressing the plights of blacks globally. Other notable
figures included W.E.B. DuBois, Kwame Nkrumah who championed the Pan-African
movements through continental and international congresses especially in the 1940s, 50s and
60s.
U.S Africa policies from the founding of the republic in 1776 have been marked by
indifference and neglect (Lawson, 2007). The year 1958 was the year marking official
recognition of Africa through the creation of the state‘s department Africa Bureau serving as
a convenient starting point. Prior to this period, the relationship between the US and Africa
was characterized by slave trade and slave relationships. However, since The Cold War
2
period is the period of ideological tussle between the two power blocs in the international
system which were the United States with the ideology of capitalism on the one hand, and the
USSR, the ideologies of these superpowers dominated international politics for the period
from 1945-1990.There have been relations between the United States and Africa during the
Cold War and even after it. As African countries became independent from the 1950‘s the
U.S deemed it fit to rethink its foreign policy towards them. This, among other factors is as a
result of the struggle for ideological supremacy at that time, between them (the United States)
and the Soviet Union. The US leaders at that time were deeply concerned on whether the
newly independent African states will turn to the west (Washington) or East(Moscow) for
sympathy and assistance in finding their place in the international system. In order to prevent
what was seen as the decline of U.S prestige in Africa, Senator F. Kennedy advised that the
US had better embark on a bold and imaginative programme that would aid development in
Africa. (Kennedy, 1950 cited in Lawson 2007)
During the cold war, the U.S foreign policy towards Africa had little to do with Africa.
African countries were pawns in the global chess game. Republican and democratic
governments‘ alike supported American clients and sought to undermine soviet ones.
Economic and military assistance was rendered to the allies such as Mobutu Sesse Seko of
Zaire as well as Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and anti-communist rebel organization such as
Janas Savimbo‘s UNITA (Uniao Nacuonal para a Indepndence Total de Angola) in Angola.
Due to the little interest perceived by the U.S, the relationship between the U.S and Africa
was mainly characterized by cold war logic from the 1950‘s to the 1980‘s.
3
Post-Cold War Relations
As the cold war came to an end, with the U.S assuming victory due to the collapse of the
defunct Soviet Union, African watchers, researchers as well as scholars began to ponder the
future of U.S relations with the African continent.
Idealists hoped that the United States would now be free to pursue policies that would
address Africa’s own problems, most of which were traced to the failure of economic
development, authoritarian governance, and/or ongoing conflicts, while realists feared that
Africa would become even more marginalized (Lawson, 2007). Indeed, the end of the Cold
War eroded the strategic importance of African countries within US foreign policy.
Geographic areas elsewhere, perceived as more critical to US economic and security
interests, became more central to US foreign policy engagement, i.e. the Middle East, Central
America and South East Asia became more critical foreign policy priorities.
Summarily, the United States policies towards Africa, with the end of the cold war, have been
more clearly defined along five subsisting pillars. These are to: strengthen democratic
institutions; spur economic growth, trade, and investment; advance peace and security; and
promote opportunity and development. Across these broad objectives, the US seek to deepen
it‘s engagement with Africa‘s young leaders; empower marginalized populations and women;
address the unique needs of fragile and post-conflict states; and work closely with the U.N.
and other multilateral actors to achieve its objectives on the continent. (Obama, 2014)
1.2 Statement of Problem
Historically, the relationship between the African continent and the United States did not
take any basic stance until the cold war era in which the US and Soviet Union tried to foster
relationship with the newly emerging African states in order to form alliances with them. It
was during the Cold War that the relationship grew as the African countries were used as
4
tools in the hands of the super powers hence, the U.S sought the cooperation of African states
to settle its cold war politics. African issues were never really considered. After the Cold
War, the need to proffer solution to African problems could not be over-emphasized. There
were policies embedded in US-Africa relations that promote cordial and beneficial interests
of the two parties, there were also policies that severed relations and restrained the U.S
relationship with some African states for example; U.S-Libya, US-South Africa, U.S-Nigeria.
This research examines the areas in which there have been continuity as well as changes in
the U.S – Africa policy since the end of the Cold War as well as other issues relating to
human and state security.
5
1.3 Objective of Study
The main objectives of this study are
1. To identify the areas of continuity and the areas of change in the U.S and Africa
relation, examining the various post-cold war administrations.
2. To examine the factors responsible for the continuities and changes in the U.S –
Africa policies
1.4 Research Hypothesis
The US-Africa relations has been characterized by continuities and changes during
and after the cold war.
1.5 Research Questions
a. What constitutes continuities and changes in U.S-Africa relations/policies
since the end of the cold war?
b. What factors are responsible for changes and continuity in U.S-Africa
relations?
1.6 Significance of Study
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between the United States
and Africa in the Post-Cold War. Such relationship has been characterized by
ambivalent and commitment. It is important to examine and analyse the rationale for
changes and continuity in US-Africa policies. It is by examining the fluctuations in
this bilateral relationship that scholarship can come to terms with holistic explanation
of the changes and continuity.
6
1.7 Scope and Limitations to the study
Within the Post- Cold War era, this study will focus on the period between 1990 and
2014.
1.8 Organization of study
This study will be organized in 5 chapters.
Chapter one will contain the background to the study, the statement of problem,
objective of study, hypothesis, scope and limitation of study, among others thereby
giving the reader an overview of the long essay.
Chapter 2 is the literature review which consists of conceptual clarification and
theoretical framework in line with the study. Two theories will be used for this study
and three concepts will be clarified.
Chapter 3 which is the methodology, gives an insight to the way the study was
carried out. This is the method used in carrying out this research.
Chapter 4 focuses on the relations between the United States and Africa during and
after the cold war period. This chapter also brings out the areas where there was
continuity in the relations and foreign policy as well as change.
Chapter 5, the concluding chapter, consists of the summary of findings in the course
of the research as well as the recommendations.
1.9 Definition of Terms
a. Continuity and Change: Aspects of the past that remained the same over certain
periods of time are referred to as continuities. Change refers to aspects that did not
remain the same; where adjustments are made. Continuity and change are evident
7
in any given period of time and concepts such as progress and decline may be
used to evaluate continuity and change.
b. Democratization: this is the process by which democracy expands within a state or
across the world.
c. Cold war: this is a state of political hostility between countries characterized by
threats, propaganda, and other measures short of open warfare, in particular. This
political hostility existed between the Soviet bloc countries and the Western
powers from 1945 to 1990. The Cold War can also be said to be conflict over
ideological differences carried on by methods short of sustained overt military
action and usually without breaking off diplomatic relations as was the case
between the United States who promoted and pursued Capitalist ideologies and
the Soviet Union which practiced and pursued Communism which was
highlighted during the second half of the twentieth century.
d. Foreign Policy: foreign policy can be said to be the plans, actions, strategies and
tactics taken by states in the international system as regards relations with one
another in order to promote and project their own national interest.
8
References
About PEPFAR http://www.pepfar.gov/about/index.htm cited in Laura white ―what kind of
change for Africa‖ April 2010
AGOA. (2009, may 18). u.s africa trade profile. Retrieved from u.s department ofcommerce:
http:www.agoa.gov
White House Report June 11,2012. U.S strategy towards Sub-Saharan Africa. pp. 2-5.
Kellerhals, Merle David Jr. ―Obama Proposes Massive Global Health Initiative‖, May 8,
2009http://www.america.gov/st/peacesecenglish/2009/May/20090507095154dmslahrellek0.7
992975.html accessed on january 18,2015
Lawson, L. (2007). U.S Africa Policy since the Cold War. Strategic Insights, 2-4.
―U.S. Africa Command,‖ http://www.africom.mil/AboutAFRICOM.asp 12 Ibid. 13 ―About
Africom‖, Resist Africom,
http://salsa.democracyinaction.org/o/1552/t/5734/content.jsp?content_KEY=3855 14Glover,
Danny and Lee, Nicole C., ―Say No to Africom,‖ November 1, 2007,
http://www.thenation.com/doc/20071119/glover_lee accessed on January 18, 2015
U.S.‐ Africa Trade Profile, U.S. Department of Commerce,
http://www.agoa.gov/resources/US_African_Trade_Profile_2009.pdf accessed on may 5,
2015
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